Geological Applications of the Stable Isotopes of Nitrogen

Geological Applications of the Stable Isotopes of Nitrogen Bruce Botton Hard rock, geological applications of the stable isotopes of nitrogen. Introduction. Gammon and Ebbing book of general chemistry define isotope as â€Å"an atom with the same number of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons. So isotopes are just different forms of a single element.†[ Gammon, Ebbing. (2005). (8th ed., p. 467)] There are two broader definitions of isotopes, light isotopes are elements that are lighter (contain less neutrons) than the common more stable element (eg. 12O,26S and 34Cl) and Heavy isotopes are the atom contains greater number of neutrons than the most common form( eg. Fe, Cu and Zn). Focusing on light stable isotopes in low temperature environments such as H, C and O and with specific reference to Nitrogen isotopes. Below are a few properties of light stable elements: They are usually of low atomic masses. The mass difference between the heavy, uncommon isotopes and the common light isotopes is usually very large. The lighter elements form bonds with more covalent properties. These light elements form a large number of compounds that are found in the natural environment. Exist in more than one oxidation state. The relative abundances of isotopes are high enough for precise determination of isotropic ratios by mass spectrometry. Sedimentary rocks, low grade igneous and metamorphic rocks (ie. That form at temperatures of 350 degrees Celsius and less) are the type of rocks that we are expecting to find these stables isotopes of interest. Any temperature above this constitutes as high temperature geochemistry. The use of isotopes in analysis of rocks is of increasing popularity, it uses the variations in isotope abundance of various elements to determine certain properties of a rock. These properties that are available are origin and age of the rocks; air or water bodies and even to see if there has been any mixing of magmas to change the composition of the rocks. Stable isotope geochemistry is mainly focussed on the isotropic variations from mass dependant isotope fractionation as compared with radiogenic isotope geochemistry which uses the products of natural radioactive decay (eg. Half lives). Equation 1. Enrichment factor equation. Many isotopes the amount of fractionation that an atom or body of molecules undergoes is very small (both kinetic or equilibrium), so small measured in parts per thousand or less. The formula above shows us the enrichment factor that is present in a sample. This formula uses the ratio of heavy isotopes to light isotopes as compared with a standard sample. So for nitrogen we will be using 15N/14N For the purpose of this assignment, we are focusing on the use of nitrogen and its two isotopes 14N and 15N in the analysis of hard rocks. Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless tasteless and most commonly a diatomic non metal gas, it actually makes up 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere. Not only is it over three quarters of our atmosphere but it is a part of all living tissues and is an essential part of life as it is part of DNA and therefore important in the genetic code and the evolution of life. The nitrogen cycle (figure below) is an essential part of existence on earth. Nitrogen cycle. Figure 1 . Schematic diagram of the Nitrogen cycle.[ Petrucci, et al (2002). (8th ed., pp. 887–889). Prentice Hall.] There are 9 stages of the nitrogen cycle, there is no start point the nitrogen cycle is a complex, continous and simultaneous system. Nitrogen fixation: this is a chemical processes by which atmospheric nitrogen is transformed into organic compoundsby microorganisms. N2 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NH4+ à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   N-org Ammonification: this process is a conversion of organic nitrogen to ammonium by bacteria. N-org à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NH4+ Nitrification: this is a process by which a nitro group is substituted for another group in organic compound. NH4+ à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NO2 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NO3 Assimilation: is the conversion of nutriment into a usable form that is incorporated into human tissue and organs after digestion NH4+ à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   N-org Dentrification: is a process by which microbacteria breaks down a nitrate to produce N2. NO3 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NO2 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NO à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   N2O à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   N2 Volatilization: in this instance it is when liquid ammonium is transformed into ammonia gas. NH4+ à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   NH3 gas Case studies: Nitrogen isotopes in peridotitic diamonds from Fuxian, China: the mantle signature. Nitrogen is of low abundance in the earth’s mantle due to lack of knowledge. But fibrous diamonds are a N rich form and are associated with MORB vesicles these have been tested and give a ÃŽ ´Ã‚ ­15N value of -5†°, the reason for a negative value is due to it being a relative value to the external sources (atmosphere) This has lead people to believe in the heterogeneous accretion model of the earth. In Pierre Cartigny et al experimental procedure they separated diamonds into broad categories, type 1 has no nitrogen and type 2 does not contain any Nitrogen. These abnormalities are linked to diffusion process and might help tell us if diamonds formed in multiple steps. The nitrogen and the ÃŽ ´15N were measured with accuracy  ±2.5% and 0.5% respectively. After IR analysis 25% of the diamonds taken from Pipe 50 were determined as type 2 , and the remainder a mixture of type 1 and 2 diamonds. These ‘mixed diamonds’ are separate platelets compacted together, this zonation of the aggregated states of type 1 and type 2 platelets conform that the octahedrally shaped diamonds growth was over a extended period. 25% of the samples that were analyzed were found to have a lower value of a ÃŽ ´Ã‚ ­15N the in previous works ranging from -12†° to -25†° and the nitrogen concentrations vary from 0 to 1473 ppm. Below figure 2 shows us the ÃŽ ´ 15N histogram which show us fibrous diamonds from all over the World and the octahedrally shaped diamonds from pipe 50, the result as can be seen is that they are based around the same value ( -7†° and -5†°). These results are coincidently similar to the ÃŽ ´13C; this shows us that the fractionation of stable nitrogen isotopes during non fibrous diamond growth is unlikely. The growth of octahedral shaped diamonds should be seen as a large open system with limited supply of volatiles and periods of time in which resorption can occur. Geochemical evidence shows fibrous and peridotitic diamonds originate from similar sources, believed to be the convecting asthenosphere with values of ÃŽ ´Ã‚ ­15N being -5  ± 2 and -4.5  ±1†° respectively. If we wanted to strengthen this argument we would have to look at Diamonds that are found in the lower mantle. These diamonds would originate from a less degassed mantle, this would mean that there wou ld be little to no nitrogen present. If the nitrogen content is controlled by rate of growth rather than the carbon nitrogen ratio of the fluid, this means that there will be little or no correlation between N and ÃŽ ´Ã‚ ­15N, and even less between ÃŽ ´13C and nitrogen which is present in this case. [ Geà ¢ochimie, et al. (1997). Terra Nova, 9(4), 175–179.] Figure 2. histogram comparing ÃŽ ´15N values of diamonds from pipe 50 kimberlites and previously analysed fibrous diamonds.[ Geà ¢ochimie, et al. (1997). Terra Nova, 9(4), 175–179.] Concentrations and isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur in the ocean floor basalts. The concentration of stable isotope ratios in fresh basalts on the sea floor provides us with information on abundance and isotope ratio of volatile elements in the upper mantle and crust. Samples were taken from less than 10mm from billow basalt ridges and then other samples were taken from the inner portions of the pillows where the groundmass ranges from glassy to crypto-crystalline. The isotropic ratios ÃŽ ´ was atmospheric nitrogen and the uncertainties was  ±1†°. The contents and the ratio of nitrogen present in the ocean floor basalts range from 0.3 – 2.8 ppm and from -0.4†° – 0.8†°. The nitrogen that was attained was of one order of magnitude bigger than the blank nitrogen cycle. This said but the uncertainties in the experiment were rather large  ±1†°, this is due to the small sample sizes. This said, the discrepancy of the isotope ratios should not be taken to be significant but the uniformity of the isotropic ratio and their similarity to the N2 ­ in the air should be emphasized. Nitrogen’s most common form in igneous rocks is in the form of N2 ­ and ammonia. When nitrogen vapour is in contact with magma it would most likely exist as N2, but if it is in the magma it will most likely be in the form of ammonia. The nitrogen in the magma itself will most likely escape as N2 from ascending magma and decreasing confining pressure and will act as a alkaline cation when undergoing fractional crystallization and therefore will be more evolved in a more evolved magma. As Degassing and fractional crystallization proceed NH+4 is enriched relative to N ­2, and NH3 would become depleted and more enriched in 15N this means that 15N/14N in igneous rocks increases with decreasing nitrogen content. According to Sakai, H et al. The average ÃŽ ´ 15N of magmatic crust, atmosphere and sedimentary rocks are 4.2, 0 and 5.2†° respectively. Therefore the global distributions of nitrogen isotopes have been interpreted as the result of out gassing of magma and fractiona tion between N2 and NH+4. ÃŽ ´15N found in MORB are close to the crustal values and therefore can be said to support the above model. Conclusion: Finally in conclusion we can see the importance of nitrogen not only in the atmosphere and our very being. But we can see that there are uses for the stable isotopes in the continued attempts to try and understand the Earth’s history and origin. Reference list: Gammon, Ebbing. (2005). General Chemistry. (R. Stratton, Ed.) (8th ed., p. 467). New york: Charles Hartford. Geà ¢ochimie, L. De, Physique, I. De, Vii, U. D. P., Cnrs, U. R. A., Cartigny, P., Boyd, S. R., Harris, J. W., et al. (1997). Nitrogen isotopes in peridotitic diamonds from Fuxian , Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯: the mantle signature. Terra Nova, 9(4), 175–179. Petrucci, Harwood, Herring. (2002). General Chemistry. (J. Challice, Ed.) (8th ed., pp. 887–889). Prentice Hall. Sakai, H., Des Marais, D. J., Ueda, a, Moore, J. G. (1984). Concentrations and isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur in ocean-floor basalts. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta, 48, 2433–41. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11540821 Sharp, Z(2007), Principles of stable isotopes Geochemistry. Prentice Hall,NJ.

The Beat In Allen Ginsberg?s ?America? :: essays research papers

A half century ago, American poetics redefined itself when it made some organic changes. Traditional verse, as its force-fed rhyme and meter schemes often restricts any accurate report, was subdued and chastised in favor of a more-realistic, a more human-excretory approach to writing verse. Both the Projectivist and the Beat poets, led by Charles Olson and Allen Ginsberg respectively, were instrumental leaders in this mapping of future poetics. They felt communication to be a fine-tuned relationship between the mind and its environment, and as such, a writing tool naturally and necessarily void of abstraction. In fact, they considered the fruits of their labors as real, and as definite, as the material which it emerged.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Let’s take a closer look at the organic form desired by the Projectivist poet as described by Charles Olson. Primarily, the poet must compose his poem by field. In other words, instead of trying to fit the near-best word into a pre-ordained line, stanza, or form, the Projectivist poet uses an inherently-less-restrictive, open, free-style verse which relies solely on the poet’s digestion of his environment, or field. Using such verse could only prove to enhance true communication. Essentially, there are two interrelated parts to Projectivist verse, the â€Å"what?â€Å" and the â€Å"how?.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The â€Å"what?† can be split three ways: kinetics, principle, and process. Kinetics refers to the energy transfer from the field through the poet’s mind to his pen. The path the energy takes from field to pen is fixed and thus, as mentioned above, void of abstraction. The second part, principle, is simply a corollary to kinetics. This part of the â€Å"what?† has been best described by Robert Creeley who wrote, â€Å"form is never more than an extension of content.† Finally, the process of composing by field can be easily defined with an understanding of the domino effect. We all know that tapping thus toppling the first of a group of dominos stacked in alignment with each other will swiftly lead to a further tapped thus toppled domino. The same idea can be understood with regards to Projectivist theory of verse; as told to Olson by Edward Dahlberg, â€Å"one perception must immediately and directly lead to a further perception.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second part of the theory of Projectivist verse, the â€Å"how,† is basically the life force the energy picks up as it travels through the poets body. Olson very eloquently referred to this union of field and life as â€Å"the dance of the intellect.

Benefits of Coffee Essay

How much coffee have you consumed already this morning? One cup? Or maybe even two? Like most college students I enjoy my cup of Joe in the morning! Coffee is one of the greatest sources of antioxidants in the global diet. Consuming large amounts is not advised, but having reasonable amounts everyday can be very beneficial to your body. Today, I would like to inform you about some of the benefits of drinking coffee. 1. Lower Chances of Death. a. Let’s face it we are all going to die b. Appears to lengthen time for people with heart disease and diabetes c. Kristen Kirkpatrick said that a study in 2012 showed that three or more cups of coffee a day lowers the risk of death regardless of whether participants drank caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee. 2. Makes your reproductive system happy d. Men would you like a drink that could lower your chances for prostate cancer? And ladies wouldn’t you like to lower your risk for endometrial cancer? e. Kirkpatrick also says that a 2011  study  found that men consuming at least six or more cups a day reduced their risk of prostate cancer by 20 percent! Another  study  published in the  Journal Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention  found that women who drank more than four cups of coffee a day had a 25 percent lower risk of endometrial cancer. 3. Lower risks of Type 2 diabetes. f. A 2012  study  found that a compound in coffee can actually help block a substance in the body called human islet amyloid polypeptide that may play a role in the development of diabetes. Further  studies  have  demonstrated  that caffeinated coffee consumption is linked to decreased diabetes risk as well. 4. Protects your brain. g. When you wake up to the smell of coffee in the morning do you usually smile? h. Coffee drinkers are less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer’s later in life according to a study done in 2009 i. The smell of coffee can help reduce stress that could be associated with loss of sleep 5.   Good for skin. j. Drinking coffee may help you to ward off basal cell carcinoma So, the next time you are wondering whether you should have that second cup of coffee to perk you up, relax. At least now you know how it could help you!

Nature of Indian Constitution - 11177 Words

Constitution of India- Whether Federal or Unitary It has been the matter of debate among the scholars that whether the constitution of India is completely federal or unitary in nature. But actually Indian constitution contains both features of a federal constitution and unitary constitution. But for the very clear picture of this conclusion first of all we have to know that what is the federal constitution and what is unitary constitution. What feature of Indian constitution makes it federal or what features makes it unitary. Federal Constitution: In a federal set up there is a two tier of Government with well assigned powers and functions. In this system the central government and the governments of the units act within a well defined†¦show more content†¦The State List consists of 66 subjects of local interest such as Public Health, Police etc. The Concurrent List has 47 subjects important to both the Union and the State such as Electricity, Trade Union, Economic and Social Planning, etc. Supremacy of the Judiciary: Supremacy of judiciary is another very important feature of a federal state where there is an independent judiciary to interpret the Constitution and to maintain its sanctity. The Supreme Court of India has the original jurisdiction to settle disputes between the Union and the States. It can declare a law as unconstitutional, if it contravenes any provision of the Constitution. Unitary Features of Indian Constitution: In spite of the fact that the Indian Constitution establishes a federal structure, it is indeed very difficult to put the Indian Constitution in the category of a true federation. 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